PROGRAMMING

Radio Programming

The Key Factor in determining public acceptance of radio is programming-the determination of what programs to put on the air and at what points in the program schedule. Only though successful programming that wins large audiences do radio become attractive to advertiser seeking mas circulation, and it is only through income obtained from these advertisers that commercial station program operations are financed. The production, technical, and sales staffs of networks and stations work to little avail if they do not have effective programming leadership.

The Programming Function

To understand radio programming, we must first have some insight into its scope and nature. (1). The programming function in radio is of such vast proportions that it is difficult to convey its size accurately. As far as commercial operation is concerned, each of station plans a program schedule for every day of the week; many stations program 18 to 20 hours per day, and some more. The national radio networks program from 10 to 15 hours a day and offer these programs ti affiliated stations which are then relieved of the necessity to produce program for those hours. A single network presents different program in the course of a single season. Counting both network and local station offerings in both radio are broadcast each day throughout the country. (2). The programming functions is continuous. Station do not go on the air to broadcast only one or two program at a time. Once they sign on in the morning, with few exceptions they program without interruption until sign-off. (3) The programming function is extremely competitive-it ism indeed, the most competitive aspect of radio. In the constant search to find to develop “hit” programs, each network is in vigorous competition with other networks, and every station competes with other stations in the same market. (4) The programming function, is a very costly on the time, effort, money, and creative ability. (5). The programming function, especially network, is extremely complex, because it is interrelated with almost all the other functions and operating processes of radio-the simultaneous availability of performing, writing, and production talent, production facilities, including studios, technical crew, etc. (6) The programming function tends to seek stability in program schedule that will develop and listening habit with the audiences, in order to be able to make long-term sales and advertiser, and to obtain relief from the relentless pressure of building new program. (7) The programming function draws its creative ideas, materials, and talent from all possible sources, professional radio performers. Writers, journalism, etc. (8) The programming function is highly speculative, there are no sure rules for predicting which program ideas will result in program the audience will like or which new performers will develop into radio star talent.

Make the Commercials Powerful Radio

The Creating Powerful Radio principles apply to commercials: Does this product or service affect “health, heart, or saving money”? How does it benefi t the listener? Remember to paint word pictures. Think and speak visually. Personalize, be a powerful storyteller. Keep the message on point. Be creative. You’ll always win over your listener if you make him laugh. Make it matter, be truthful, make sure to always emphasize what is “in it” for the listener. The Radio Advertising Bureau suggests these guidelines: (1). The most important rule in radio advertising: Mention the client often. Make sure the listeners know   where to fi nd the client. (2). Play up the advantage to the listener. What’s the unique selling proposition of the product or service?  What does it offer that is not available elsewhere? (3). Grab attention. Use noise, music, unusual voices, whatever is appropriate.(4). Zero in. Pitch directly to your target listener. “If you own an aging, overweight cat, listen to this!” (5). Be easily understood. Copy writers who use big words  gratuitously (there’s one now!) often lose theaudience. (6). Get to the point! Don’t delay the unique selling proposition.(7). Use action words—“Now” and “Today” when you’re announcing a  sale. Radio’s greatest strength is its immediacy . . . use it! (8). Make the listener part of a word picture. Don’t just talk about that new car. Using sound effects and music creates a mood and puts your listener behind the wheel. (9). Avoid clichés such as: “We’re known for our excellent quality and great customer service.” Try, “Our quality sucks and we’ll ignore you from the moment you come in until you leave in a huff.” Taudience will pay attention. (10). Be accurate. Make sure the spot is checked by the client or other responsible party before it hits the air. Nothing says “We’re sloppy and don’t deserve your money” more than a spot with factual errors that’s rushed onto the air.

Creating Powerful Radio
Getting, Keeping & Growing Audiences
News, Talk, Information & Personality
Broadcast, HD, Satellite & Internet

by VALERIE GELLER
(2007, page 280-281)

Think And Learn RADIO

Harley Prayudha@2010, Harley Publishing Bandung

Radio Programming Is Communication

Basiclly,communication is the social process through which one person (the communicator) elicits responses from another person ( the communicant) by the use of simbols. The communicator in radio programming is far more apt to be a group than an individual. Radio broadcasting is customarily an ensemble task in which numbers of people have a part : announcers, musicians, engineers, writers, publicists and other. The communicant in radio programming is almost always a number of a large group- the audience.

The Manager's Duties And Responsibilities

A primary objective of the station manager is to operate in a manner that generates the most profit, while maintaining a positive an productive attitude among station employees. This is more of a challenge than it may seem at first, claims radio broadcaster Cliff Shank."In order to meet the responsibility that you are faced with daily, you really have to be an expert in so many areas: Sales, marketing, finance, legal matters, technical, governmental, and programming.

FORMS OF RADIO COMMERCIALS

No matter which type of commercial is being used, form must be considered. The time avaolable governs the choice of form, but it dose not rule out any the following. Combinations of the different forms may be used :

Straight Selling or Description
This is the most common and most widely used. Principal advantages are directness and unified development of a single appeal. It depends on the announcer and "copy for the ear." A question often raised is "Should the announcer give the commercial as his personal recommendations." The practice on most station is for the announcer not to do so in regular staff work, but he may be permitted to do so on "personality shows." Statements such as, "Come to our store" and "We have been doing business in the same location" tend to confuse the station and sponsor relationship. The usual practice is to avoid them unless they are phrased as quotations from the sponsor.

Testimonial
This may be a personal recommendation by the program star, announcer, or guest, or a quotation from a celebrity or "satisfied user." Testimonials can impart additional impact, due to the feeling of gratitude many listeners have. They may try a product recommended by a radio "friend" the announcer or the star. If this appeal is not tactfully presented it may include a negative reaction. The indirect methode is used by many comedians.

Education
This Form may be used when the writer is using reason why appeals. A writer on advertising, Albert W. Frey, says that educational commercials "provide information for consumer who does deliberate before he makes a purchase, comparing values and weighing pros and cons...They are most used in the advertising of products which are rather high in price...and consumed only over a relatively long period of time."


Multivoice
This may consist of a series of alternate coices in climactic arrangement; a question-andanswer frame which permits an abrupt beginning; a device for pinpointing attention on a slogan or phrase; or reinforcement through repetiion.

FORMS OF RADIO COMMERCIALS

No matter which type of commercial is being used, form must be considered. The time avaolable governs the choice of form, but it dose not rule out any the following. Combinations of the different forms may be used :

Straight Selling or Description

This is the most common and most widely used. Principal advantages are directness and unified development of a single appeal. It depends on the announcer and "copy for the ear." A question often raised is "Should the announcer give the commercial as his personal recommendations." The practice on most station is for the announcer not to do so in regular staff work, but he may be permitted to do so on "personality shows." Statements such as, "Come to our store" and "We have been doing business in the same location" tend to confuse the station and sponsor relationship. The usual practice is to avoid them unless they are phrased as quotations from the sponsor.

Testimonial
This may be a personal recommendation by the program star, announcer, or guest, or a quotation from a celebrity or "satisfied user." Testimonials can impart additional impact, due to the feeling of gratitude many listeners have. They may try a product recommended by a radio "friend" the announcer or the star. If this appeal is not tactfully presented it may include a negative reaction. The indirect methode is used by many comedians.

Education
This Form may be used when the writer is using reason why appeals. A writer on advertising, Albert W. Frey, says that educational commercials "provide information for consumer who does deliberate before he makes a purchase, comparing values and weighing pros and cons...They are most used in the advertising of products which are rather high in price...and consumed only over a relatively long period of time."

Multivoice

This may consist of a series of alternate coices in climactic arrangement; a question-andanswer frame which permits an abrupt beginning; a device for pinpointing attention on a slogan or phrase; or reinforcement through repetiion.

FORMS OF RADIO COMMERCIALS

No matter which type of commercial is being used, form must be considered. The time avaolable governs the choice of form, but it dose not rule out any the following. Combinations of the different forms may be used :

Straight Selling or Description

This is the most common and most widely used. Principal advantages are directness and unified development of a single appeal. It depends on the announcer and "copy for the ear." A question often raised is "Should the announcer give the commercial as his personal recommendations." The practice on most station is for the announcer not to do so in regular staff work, but he may be permitted to do so on "personality shows." Statements such as, "Come to our store" and "We have been doing business in the same location" tend to confuse the station and sponsor relationship. The usual practice is to avoidm them unless they are phrased as quotations from the sponsor.

Testimonial
This may be a personal recommendation by the program star, announcer, or guest, or a quotation from a celebrity or "satisfied user." Testimonials can impart additional impact, due to the feeling of gratitude many listeners have. They may try a product recommended by a radio "friend" the announcer or the star. If this appeal is not tactfully presented it may include a negative reaction. The indirect methode is used by many comedians.

Education
This Form may be used when the writer is using reason why appeals. A writer on advertising, Albert W. Frey, says that educational commercials "provide information for cinsumer who does deliberate before he makes a purchase, comparing values and weighing pros and cons...They are most used in the advertising of products which are rather high in price...and consumed only over a relatively long period of time."

BASIC THEORY OF THE PUBLIC INTEREST

In interpreting the public interest clause, the radio has at various time set fort the following principles : (1). The Right of the public to broadcast service is superior to the right of any individual to use the ether. (2) broadcasting must be maintaned as a medium of free speech for the people as a whole. (3) Radio station have a definite responsibility to provide a reasonable amount of broadcast time for controversial public discussion. In programming susch discussion, the broadcaster must avoid one-sidedness and observe overall fairness. The right of the public to be informed of different opinion in important matters of public controversy is the dominant consideration. (4). Licences must maintain control over the programming of their own station, and may not surrender their program responsibility by contract or otherwise to network, advertising agencies, or other program-producing organization.(5) Radio station must be responsive to the needs and interests of the communities in which they are located. (6). Radio Stations may not be used exclusively for commercial purposes.They must use some of their broadcast time for sustaining programs and must avoid advertising excesses which offend good taste. (7). Radio stations are expected to abide by their promises of program services unless exceptional circumstances supervene.

ADVERTISING AGENCIES

The formulation and management of advertising campaign is distinctively the function of advertising agencies. These agencies are hired by advertisers to advise them on promotional matters and to plan and execute advertising campaigns. The size of an advertising agency depends upon the mumber and size of accounts it handles. The agency receives its income from the advertising media in which it places its client's advertising. Radio station pay an advertising agency 30 percent of the gross amount of the time purchase the agency make in behalf of its client. The Agency is also generally entitled to add 30 percent for itself to all bill submitted to its client for program and production costs.

Agency Organization

Large advertising agencies are equipped to handle all types of advertising in all the mass communication media. To handle this work, an agency employs a staff of skilled personnel, among whom are found the following : (1) Account executive, who supervise the activities of major advertising accounts and maintain liaison between the agency and the client's advertising manager. The account executive is responsible for the general supervision of all advertising placed by his agency in behalf of his client. (2) Media specialists, including time and space buyers, who are closely acquainted media services have now come into being which are able to supply spot buying service to advertisers and to agencies that do not want the overhead of a media department. (3) Radio Program buyers who deal with networks and other program suppliers and recommend program for sponsorship by the agency's clients, and program supervisors who read script prior to production and seek to protect the interest of the agency's clients who sponsor the program. With the increase in participation advertising in network radio and the decline in program sponsorship by advertiser, this departmenet has been dropped or reduced in size at many agencies. (4) Radio production specialist to preapre and produce radio commercials and who may also participate in the production of major radio show owned by agency, although the production of shows by agencies is now rate. (5) Copy writers, who write the advertisements seen in newspaper and magazines and the commercials seen on television or herad on the radio. (6) Art Directors, who conceive of layout for newpaper advertisements and radio commercials. (7) Marketing research experts, to evaluate the effectiveness of advertising campaign and to assist in the choice of advertising appeals.

ADVERTISING AND THE RADIO BROADCASTING

In the evaluating radio along with other media of communication, such as newspapers, magazines, billboards, skywriting, weekly supplement match cover, etc., the advertiser is concerned with the following criteria: 1). Circulation, 2). Effectiveness of the medium to sell his product, and Cost.

Circulation

When advertiser buy time on radio they do so because they are impressed with the wide circulation that radio can give to their advertising message. A commercial message delivered on a popular radio program. In Local advertising, the advertiser compares the circulation offered by the local radio stations with that offered by local newspapers. Circulation related to the number of people who are exposed to the advertiser's message. In Radio, circulation is influenced by the potential coverage offered by the station by virtue of its transmitting power, the general programming popularity of the station, the popularity of the program on which the advertising message is presented, the popularity of adjacent program and the attractiveness of the advertising message itself. It is therefore be expected that advertisers who buy radio time will generally seek to have commercial messages appear on program that reach the largest audience.

Effectiveness

Each advertising medium has its own special characteristic of communication that make advertising in it more less effective. Some advertising media are better for certain types of advertising than other media. Brand-name identification is often sought through repeated radio announcements. No advertising medium, however, can show a product to potential buyers. Many advertiser have found that radio provided them wth an opportunity to demonstrate their product and deliver a sales mesagge to millions of people that otherwise can only be done over the counter to a few people at a time. Moreover, the association of the advertising message with a popular program can give the advertiser additional values : goodwill engendered by the program itself ; identification with the program and the program talent that often is used for point-of-sales merchandising purpose; direct sales appeals by the stars, special attention to the advertiser's message through lead-ins designed to invited attention; and strategic placement of the message.

Cost

In evaluation the cost of advertising in relation to its effectiveness, advertisers are often forced to work with variable factors that make its very difficult to arrive at a scientific judgement. Ideallym the advertiser desires to know which methode of advertising producers the greates number of sales of his products at the smalles cost. Because he ussually has several different advertising campaigns proceeding simultaneously and beacause the effectiveness of his own commercial message is not a controlled factor when different media are compared, the advertiser generally contents himself with taking the simple circulation fidures, dividing them by thousand. and dividing that fidure into the cost of buying the broadcast time and the program arrive at a figure representing how much it costs to reach 1000 people.

PROGRAMMING

Radio Programming

The Key Factor in determining public acceptance of radio is programming-the determination of what programs to put on the air and at what points in the program schedule. Only though successful programming that wins large audiences do radio become attractive to advertiser seeking mass circulation, and it is only through income obtained from these advertisers that commercial station program operations are financed. The production, technical, and sales staffs of networks and stations work to little avail if they do not have effective programming leadership.

The Programming Function

To understand radio programming, we must first have some insight into its scope and nature. (1). The programming function in radio is of such vast proportions that it is difficult to convey its size accurately. As far as commercial operation is concerned, each of station plans a program schedule for every day of the week; many stations program 18 to 20 hours per day, and some more. The national radio networks program from 10 to 15 hours a day and offer these programs ti affiliated stations which are then relieved of the necessity to produce program for those hours. A single network presents different program in the course of a single season. Counting both network and local station offerings in both radio are broadcast each day throughout the country. (2). The programming functions is continuous. Station do not go on the air to broadcast only one or two program at a time. Once they sign on in the morning, with few exceptions they program without interruption until sign-off. (3) The programming function is extremely competitive-it ism indeed, the most competitive aspect of radio. In the constant search to find to develop “hit” programs, each network is in vigorous competition with other networks, and every station competes with other stations in the same market. (4) The programming function, is a very costly on the time, effort, money, and creative ability. (5). The programming function, especially network, is extremely complex, because it is interrelated with almost all the other functions and operating processes of radio-the simultaneous availability of performing, writing, and production talent, production facilities, including studios, technical crew, etc. (6) The programming function tends to seek stability in program schedule that will develop and listening habit with the audiences, in order to be able to make long-term sales and advertiser, and to obtain relief from the relentless pressure of building new program. (7) The programming function draws its creative ideas, materials, and talent from all possible sources, professional radio performers. Writers, journalism, etc. (8) The programming function is highly speculative, there are no sure rules for predicting which program ideas will result in program the audience will like or which new performers will develop into radio star talent.

BROADCASTING DEFINED

For the sake of convenience in this discussion, we may defined broadcasting as the transmission through space, by mean of radio frequencies, of signal capable of being received either aurally or visually or both aurally and visually by the general public. There are several types of broadcasting : standard or AM (Amplitude Modulation) broadcasting of sound; FM (Frequency Modulation) broadcasting a higher fidelity form of sound transmission,; television, the transmission of pictures and sound; facsimile, the transmission of still pictures and writing, with or without sound, to be received on photographic paper; and numerous other type of broadcasting, including shortwave transmissions overseas, police radio, Army and Navy radio, microwave relays, and highly specialized forms of broadcasting such as radar. When we use the term ‘broadcasting’ in this volume, it should be understood to include only AM dan FM radio, and television.

Transmission Of Broadcasting

One way to gauge the scope of Indonesia broadcasting is to note how much effort and money go into operations of our broadcasting system. In the 2000’s, there were in operations one national radio network (Radio of Indonesia Republic), more than 3000 individual radio stations. Most of the se stations transmit program from sunup to midnight, and many continue later. To produce income the commercial station sell program and time to advertiser.

Treatment Of News and Public Events

NEWS

1). A Radio Station's news schedule should be adequate and well-balanced. 2). News reporting should be factual, fair and without bias. 3). A Radio Station's broadcaster should exercise articular discrimination in the acceptance, placement and presentation of advertising in news program so that such advertising should be distinguishable from the news content. 4). At all times, pictorial and verbal material for both news and comment ahould conform to other sections of these standards, wherever such sections are reasonably applicable. 5). Good taste should prevail in the selection and handling of news : Morbid, sensational or alarming detail not essential to the factual report, especially in connection with stories of crime or sex, should be avoided. News Should be telecast in such a manner as to avoid panic and unneccessary alarm. 6). Commentary and analysis shoul be clearly identified as such. 7). Pictorial material should be chosen with care and not presented in a misleding manner. 8. All News interview program should be governed by accepted standards of ethical jounalism, under which the interviewer selects the questions to be asked. Where there is advance agreement materially restricting an important or newsworthy area questioning, the interviewer will state on the program that such limitation has been agreed upon. Such disclosure should be made if the person being interviewed requires that question be submitted in advance or if the participates in editing a recording of the interview prior to its use on the air. 9). A Radio broadcaster should exercise due care in his supervision of content, format, and presentation of newscast originated by his station, and in this selection of newscasters, commentators, and analysis.

PUBLIC EVENTS

1). A Radio broadcaster has an affirmative responsibility at all times to be informed of public, event, and to provide coverage consonant with the ends of an informed and enlightened citizenry. 2). The treatment of such events by a radio broadcaster should provide adequate and informed coverage.

Presenting On Radio

It is the lot of broadcasters, as most will admit, constantly to be seen as inferior to television presenters. Sadly they often secretly beleive it themselves and struggle desperately to get in front of a camera, regardless of their suitability. The two mediums, whilst requiring many of the same skills, also demand different abilities. Television is technically more complicated and, I beleive, more stressful and cumbersome; it is certainly not true that because you have mastered it you can slip easily in to radio. There is a closeners to the audience which the presenter, potentially, much loved but also extremely vulnerable. Radio is not just TV without the picture.

Creating A Sound And Style

Radio is a remarkably intimate medium. Every presenter says you should imaging you mum, partner or friend and talk only to them. If there is a golden rule, this is it. But you need to do more than this. A presenter either spontaneously, or else deliberately, will create a sound that will become a 'USP' (unique selling point)- something that marks you out from the rest. Since you can only be yourself this involves developing certain of your prefered characteristics. Maybe you are forth- right by nature or maybe gentle and coaxing with people; these traits will form a style that 'brands' you. At the same time, when you're starting out it's as well to be able to adapt your sound so that you maximize your job oppotunities and get heaps of experience.

Interactive Media

Interactive media refers to media that allows for active participation by the recipient, hence interactivity. Traditional information theory would describe interactive media as those media that establish two-way communication. In media theory, interactive media are discussed along their cultural implications. The field of Human Computer Interaction deals with aspects of interactivity and design in digital media. Other areas that deal with interactive media are new media art, interactive advertising and video game production.

While much traditional analog electronic media and print media qualifies as interactive media, the term is sometimes misunderstood as exclusive to digital media. The significant increase in possibilities for interactivity (especially over vast distances) brought by the internet boosted the availability of digital interactive media. Still, e.g. language in face-to-face communication would formally belong to the category of interactive media.

Interactive media are often designed by information designers. As all media they rely on communication. In the case of e.g. computer games this is visual, acoustic, and haptic communication between the user (player) and the game. In Mobile telephony, the communication happens between two people and is purely acoustic at the first glance. Yet, according to media theory the cultural implications of the medium have to be taken into account. Thus, aspects like constant availability, customization of the mobile phone and Short Message Service are also part of the interactive medium called Mobile telephony. Media restrain from being translated to technological entities.

Terminology

Any form of interface between the end user/audience and the medium may be considered interactive. Interactive media is not limited to electronic media or digital media. Board games, pop-up books, gamebooks, flip books and constellation wheels are all examples of printed interactive media. Books with a simple table of contents or index may be considered interactive due to the non-linear control mechanism in the medium, but are usually considered non-interactive since the majority of the user experience is non-interactive sequential reading.

Examples of interactive media

• World Wide Web
• Computer games
• Online games
• Video games
• Interactive television
• Interactive radio
• Mobile telephony
• E-Mail
• E-Commerce
• Short Message Service
• electronic literature
• Some developments in pervasive computing
• Shadow Monsters

Music Radio

Music radio is a radio format in which music is the main broadcast content. After television replaced old time radio's dramatic content, music formats became dominant in many countries. Radio drama and comedy continue, often on public radio Music drives radio technology, including wide-band FM and modern digital radio systems such as digital radio mondiale.

How it works

The radio station provides programming to attract listeners, and profits by selling advertising. Young people are targeted by advertisers because their product preferences can be changed more easily. Therefore, the most commercially successful stations target young audiences. The programming usually cycles from the least attractive item, to most attractive, followed by commercials. The purpose of this plan is to build listener interest during the programming. Because dead air does not attract listeners, the station tries to fill its broadcast day with sound. Audiences will only tolerate a certain number of commercials before tuning away. In some regions, government regulators specify how many commercials can be played in a given hour.Music is the main program item. There are several standard ways of selecting the music, such as free-form, top-40, album-oriented rock, and Jack. These can be applied to all types of music. Jingles are radio's equivalent of neon signs. Jingles are brief, bright pieces of choral music that promote the station's call letters, frequency and sometimes disc-jockey or program segment. Jingles are produced for radio stations by commercial specialty services such as JAM[1], in Texas. Jingles are often replaced by recorded voiceovers (called "stingers"). In order to build station loyalty, the station announces time, station call letters and frequency as often as six times per hour. Jingles and stingers help give the station a branded sound in a pleasant, minimal amount of air-time. The legal requirement for station identification in the U.S. is once per hour, approximately at the top of the hour, or at the conclusion of a transmission.News, time-checks, real-time travel advice and weather reports are often valuable to listeners. The news headlines and station identification are therefore given just before a commercial. Time, traffic and weather are given just after. The engineer typically sets the station clocks to standard local time each day, by listening to WWV or WWVH (see atomic clock). These segments are less valued by the most targeted market, young people, so many stations shorten or omit these segments in favor of music. While most music stations that offer news reports simply "tear and read" news items (from the newswires or the Internet), larger stations (generally those affiliated with news/talk stations) may employ an editor to rewrite headlines, and provide summaries of local news. Summaries fit more news in less air-time. Some stations share news collection with TV or newspapers in the same media conglomerate. An emerging trend is to use the radio station's web site to provide in-depth coverage of news and advertisers headlined on the air. Many stations contract with agencies such as Smartraveler and AccuWeather for their weather and traffic reports instead of using in-house staff. Most radio stations maintain a call-in telephone line for promotions and gags, or to take record requests. DJs generally answer the phone and edit the call during music plays. Some stations take requests by e-mail and online chat. The value of a station's advertising is set by the number, age and wealth of its listeners. Arbitron, a commercial statistical service, historically used listener diaries to statistically measure the number of listeners. Arbitron diaries were collected on Thursdays, and for this reason, most radio stations have run special promotions on Thursdays, hoping to persuade last-minute Arbitron diarists to give them a larger market-share. Arbitron contractually prevents mention of its name on the air. Promotions are the on-air equivalent of lotteries for listeners. Promotional budgets usually run about $1 per listener per year. In a large market, a successful radio station can pay a full time director of promotions, and run several lotteries per month of vacations, automobiles and other prizes. Lottery items are often bartered from advertisers, allowing both companies to charge full prices at wholesale costs. For example, cruising companies often have unused capacity, and when given the choice, prefer to pay their bills by bartering cruise vacations. Since the ship will sail in any case, bartered vacations cost the cruise company little or nothing. The promotion itself advertises the company providing the prize.

Radio Broadcasting

Radio broadcasting is an audio (sound) broadcasting service, traditionally broadcast through the air as radio waves (a form of electromagnetic radiation) from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast common programming, either in syndication or simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting also can be done via cable FM, local wire networks, satellite and the Internet.

History

The earliest radio stations were simply radiotelegraphy systems and did not carry audio. The first claimed audio transmission that could be termed a broadcast occurred on Christmas Eve in 1906, and was made by Reginald Fessenden. While many early experimenters attempted to create systems similar to radiotelephone devices where only two parties were meant to communicate, there were others who intended to transmit to larger audiences. Charles Herrold started broadcasting in California in 1909 and was carrying audio by the next year.

For the next decade, radio tinkerers had to build their own radio receivers. Dr. Frank Conrad began broadcasting from his Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania garage with the call letters KDKA. Later, the equipment was moved to the top of an office building in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and purchased by Westinghouse). KDKA of Pittsburgh, under Westinghouse's ownership, started broadcasting as the first licensed "commercial" radio station on November 2, 1920.[1] The commercial designation came from the type of license—they didn't start airing advertisements until a few years later. The first broadcast was the results of the U.S. presidential election, 1920. The Montreal station that became CFCF began program broadcasts on May 20, 1920, and the Detroit station that became WWJ began program broadcasts beginning on August 20, 1920, although neither held a license at the time.

Radio Argentina began regularly scheduled transmissions from the Teatro Coliseo in Buenos Aires on August 27, 1920, making its own priority claim. The station got its license on November 19, 1923. The delay was due to the lack of official Argentine licensing procedures before that date. This station continued regular broadcasting of entertainment and cultural fare for several decades.[1][2]

When internet based radio became feasible in the mid '90s, the new medium required no licensing and the stations could broadcast from anywhere in the world without the need for "over the air" transmitters. This greatly reduced the overhead for establishing a station, and in 1996, George Maat started 'A' Net Station (A.N.E.T.)[3] and began broadcasting commercial free from Antarctica.

MIT developed the "Radio Locator" List of Radio Stations.[4]. After stations started streaming audio on the internet, Radio-Locator added this to their search engine so anyone could locate a station's website and listen to a station offering a worldwide stream. This list also tracks "terrestrial" radio stations who may not have live audio on the net, or even a website, but are able to find station information by various other search queries.

Types

The best known type of radiostation are the ones that broadcast via radiowaves. These include foremost AM and FM stations. There are several subtypes, namely commercial, public and nonprofit varieties as well as student-run campus radio stations and hospital radio stations can be found throughout the developed world.
Although now being eclipsed by internet-distributed radio, there are many stations that broadcast on shortwave bands using AM technology that can be received over thousands of miles (especially at night). For example, the BBC has a full schedule transmitted via shortwave. These broadcasts are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions and sunspots.

Also, many other non-broadcast types of radio stations exist. These include:
•base stations for police, fire and ambulance networks
•military base stations
•dispatch base stations for taxis, trucks, and couriers
•emergency broadcast systems
•amateur radio stations

Data (digital radio)

Most new radio systems are digital, see also: Digital TV, Satellite Radio, Digital Audio Broadcasting. The oldest form of digital broadcast was spark gap telegraphy, used by pioneers such as Marconi. By pressing the key, the operator could send messages in Morse code by energizing a rotating commutating spark gap. The rotating commutator produced a tone in the receiver, where a simple spark gap would produce a hiss, indistinguishable from static. Spark gap transmitters are now illegal, because their transmissions span several hundred megahertz. This is very wasteful of both radio frequencies and power.

The next advance was continuous wave telegraphy, or CW (Continuous Wave), in which a pure radio frequency, produced by a vacuum tube electronic oscillator was switched on and off by a key. A receiver with a local oscillator would "heterodyne" with the pure radio frequency, creating a whistle-like audio tone. CW uses less than 100 Hz of bandwidth. CW is still used, these days primarily by amateur radio operators (hams). Strictly, on-off keying of a carrier should be known as "Interrupted Continuous Wave" or ICW or on-off keying (OOK).

Radio teletypes usually operate on short-wave (HF) and are much loved by the military because they create written information without a skilled operator. They send a bit as one of two tones. Groups of five or seven bits become a character printed by a teletype. From about 1925 to 1975, radio teletype was how most commercial messages were sent to less developed countries. These are still used by the military and weather services.

Aircraft use a 1200 Baud radioteletype service over VHF to send their ID, altitude and position, and get gate and connecting-flight data. Microwave dishes on satellites, telephone exchanges and TV stations usually use quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). QAM sends data by changing both the phase and the amplitude of the radio signal. Engineers like QAM because it packs the most bits into a radio signal when given an exclusive (non-shared) fixed narrowband frequency range. Usually the bits are sent in "frames" that repeat. A special bit pattern is used to locate the beginning of a frame.

Communication systems that limit themselves to a fixed narrowband frequency range are vulnerable to jamming.

A variety of jamming-resistant spread spectrum techniques were initially developed for military use, most famously for Global Positioning System satellite transmissions. Commercial use of spread spectrum begin in the 1980s.
Bluetooth, most cell phones, and the 802.11b version of Wi-Fi each use various forms of spread spectrum.

Systems that need reliability, or that share their frequency with other services, may use "coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing" or COFDM. COFDM breaks a digital signal into as many as several hundred slower subchannels. The digital signal is often sent as QAM on the subchannels. Modern COFDM systems use a small computer to make and decode the signal with digital signal processing, which is more flexible and far less expensive than older systems that implemented separate electronic channels. COFDM resists fading and ghosting because the narrow-channel QAM signals can be sent slowly. An adaptive system, or one that sends error-correction codes can also resist interference, because most interference can affect only a few of the QAM channels. COFDM is used for WiFi, some cell phones, Digital Radio Mondiale, Eureka 147, and many other local area network, digital TV and radio standards.

Audio

AM broadcast radio sends music and voice in the Medium Frequency (MF—0.300 MHz to 3 MHz) radio spectrum. AM radio uses amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the transmitted signal is made proportional to the sound amplitude captured (transduced) by the microphone while the transmitted frequency remains unchanged. Transmissions are affected by static and interference because lightning and other sources of radio that are transmitting at the same frequency add their amplitudes to the original transmitted amplitude. The most wattage an AM radio station in the United States and Canada is allowed to use is 50,000 watts and the majority of stations that emit signals this powerful were grandfathered in; these include WGN (AM), WJR, KGA and CKLW. In 1986 KTNN received the last granted 50,000 watt license.
FM broadcast radio sends music and voice with higher fidelity than AM radio. In frequency modulation, amplitude variation at the microphone causes the transmitter frequency to fluctuate. Because the audio signal modulates the frequency and not the amplitude, an FM signal is not subject to static and interference in the same way as AM signals. Due to its need for a wider bandwidth, FM is transmitted in the Very High Frequency (VHF—30 MHz to 300 MHz) radio spectrum. VHF radio waves act more like light, traveling in straight lines, hence the reception range is generally limited to about 50-100 miles. During unusual upper atmospheric conditions, FM signals are occasionally reflected back towards the Earth by the ionosphere, resulting in Long distance FM reception. FM receivers are subject to the capture effect, which causes the radio to only receive the strongest signal when multiple signals appear on the same frequency. FM receivers are relatively immune to lightning and spark interference.

High power is useful in penetrating buildings, diffracting around hills, and refracting for some distance beyond the horizon. Consequently, 100,000 watt FM stations can regularly be heard up to 100 miles (160 km) away, and farther (e.g., 150 miles, 240 km) if there are no competing signals. A few old, "grandfathered" stations do not conform to these power rules. WBCT-FM (93.7) in Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA, runs 320,000 watts ERP, and can increase to 500,000 watts ERP by the terms of its original license. Such a huge power level does not usually help to increase range as much as one might expect, because VHF frequencies travel in nearly straight lines over the horizon and off into space. Nevertheless, when there were fewer FM stations competing, this station could be heard near Bloomington, Illinois, USA, almost 300 miles (500 km) away.[citation needed]

FM subcarrier services are secondary signals transmitted in a "piggyback" fashion along with the main program. Special receivers are required to utilize these services. Analog channels may contain alternative programming, such as reading services for the blind, background music or stereo sound signals. In some extremely crowded metropolitan areas, the sub-channel program might be an alternate foreign language radio program for various ethnic groups. Sub-carriers can also transmit digital data, such as station identification, the current song's name, web addresses, or stock quotes. In some countries, FM radios automatically re-tune themselves to the same channel in a different district by using sub-bands.
Aviation voice radios use VHF AM. AM is used so that multiple stations on the same channel can be received. (Use of FM would result in stronger stations blocking out reception of weaker stations due to FM's capture effect). Aircraft fly high enough that their transmitters can be received hundreds of miles (or kilometres) away, even though they are using VHF.

Marine voice radios can use single sideband voice (SSB) in the shortwave High Frequency (HF—3 MHz to 30 MHz) radio spectrum for very long ranges or narrowband FM in the VHF spectrum for much shorter ranges. Narrowband FM sacrifices fidelity to make more channels available within the radio spectrum, by using a smaller range of radio frequencies, usually with five kHz of deviation, versus the 75 kHz used by commercial FM broadcasts, and 25 kHz used for TV sound.

Government, police, fire and commercial voice services also use narrowband FM on special frequencies. Early police radios used AM receivers to receive one-way dispatches.

Civil and military HF (high frequency) voice services use shortwave radio to contact ships at sea, aircraft and isolated settlements. Most use single sideband voice (SSB), which uses less bandwidth than AM. On an AM radio SSB sounds like ducks quacking. Viewed as a graph of frequency versus power, an AM signal shows power where the frequencies of the voice add and subtract with the main radio frequency. SSB cuts the bandwidth in half by suppressing the carrier and (usually) lower sideband. This also makes the transmitter about three times more powerful, because it doesn't need to transmit the unused carrier and sideband.

TETRA, Terrestrial Trunked Radio is a digital cell phone system for military, police and ambulances. Commercial services such as XM, WorldSpace and Sirius offer encrypted digital Satellite radio.